Algebra
Universal Enveloping Algebras
Цели урока
- Construct U(g) as a quotient of the tensor algebra
- Understand the PBW theorem: ordered monomials form a basis of U(g)
- Know the Casimir element and its role in representation theory
- Understand the Hopf algebra structure on U(g) and its physical meaning
Предварительные знания
- Lie algebras
- Tensor products
- Linear algebra
15,000 scientific papers per year cite the PBW theorem. One abstract result about an ordered basis governs quantum mechanics, representation theory, and IBM quantum computers. How do the words 'ordered monomials form a basis' become the foundation of physics?
- CERN: quantum particle states computed via U(sl(2)) - direct application of PBW for operator normal forms
- IBM Quantum: the Hopf algebra U(g) describes tensorization of qubit states in quantum circuits
- Computer algebra: Mathematica, Maple use PBW for normal forms in noncommutative algebras
- Theoretical physics: the Casimir element is the operator L^2 in quantum angular momentum mechanics
Three names, one theorem
Henri Poincare in 1900 proved the first version of the basis theorem for Lie algebras. George Birkhoff in 1937 rediscovered it independently. Ernst Witt the same year gave the cleanest proof. Since then the theorem carries three names - PBW. Hendrik Casimir in 1931 found the central element in connection with quantum rotational mechanics: L^2 commutes with L_x, L_y, L_z, and this is not coincidence - it is a theorem about the center of U(g).
Construction of U(g) and the PBW Theorem
Over 15,000 scientific papers cited the PBW theorem in 2022 alone - spanning quantum mechanics, string theory, and combinatorics. Physicists at CERN compute quantum particle states using representations of U(sl(2)). One abstract theorem about an ordered basis rules a vast empire of computation.
The problem: a Lie algebra representation is a linear action of g on a vector space V, but g is not an associative algebra. U(g) solves this: the smallest associative algebra containing g and realizing the Lie bracket as a commutator.
The PBW basis is a computational tool. Any element of U(g) can be reduced to a linear combination of ordered monomials by a canonical rewriting procedure. This makes U(g) concrete enough to program.
The PBW theorem states that ordered monomials e_1^{a_1} * ... * e_n^{a_n} form:
PBW: ordered monomials are a basis of U(g). This proves g injects into U(g) and determines the vector space structure.
Casimir Element and the Center of U(g)
Casimir found it in 1931 while working on quantum mechanics. The Casimir operator commutes with everything in sl(2). On each irreducible representation it acts as a scalar. One number completely describes the representation - this is not a coincidence but a theorem.
Casimir in physics
The square of angular momentum
In quantum mechanics, L^2 = L_x^2 + L_y^2 + L_z^2 is the squared angular momentum operator. This is precisely the Casimir element of su(2). On a state with quantum number l, L^2 gives l(l+1)*hbar^2. Physicists know this empirically; the mathematics explains why it must be so.
For a semisimple Lie algebra g, the center Z(U(g)) is generated by Casimir elements. For sl(n) there are n-1 generators. Harish-Chandra's theorem: Z(U(g)) is isomorphic to a polynomial algebra in rank(g) variables.
The Casimir element C is in Z(U(sl(2))). On the irreducible module V_n it acts as:
Schur's lemma: any endomorphism of an irreducible module is a scalar. C in Center(U(g)) => acts as a scalar n(n+2)/2 on V_n.
Hopf Algebra Structure on U(g)
U(g) is not just an associative algebra. It has a coproduct, counit, and antipode - making it a Hopf algebra. This additional structure is what allows tensor products of representations to be defined, and it is the starting point for quantum group deformations.
| Structure | Formula | Physical meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Multiplication | xy in U(g) | Sequential application of operators |
| Coproduct | Delta(x) = x tensor 1 + 1 tensor x | Action on tensor product spaces |
| Counit | epsilon(x) = 0 for x in g | Trivial (vacuum) representation |
| Antipode | S(x) = -x | Dual (contragredient) representation |
Quantum groups Uq(g) are q-deformations of the Hopf structure on U(g). As q -> 1, the classical coproduct is recovered. It is precisely the deformation of Delta that distinguishes quantum groups from classical universal enveloping algebras.
The coproduct Delta(x) = x tensor 1 + 1 tensor x in U(g) defines:
The Hopf structure on U(g) with primitive coproduct Delta(x) = x tensor 1 + 1 tensor x makes tensor products of modules into modules via the Leibniz rule.
PBW Filtration and Applications
PBW is not just a theorem about a basis. It defines a filtration on U(g) by degree of monomials. The associated graded object gr U(g) is isomorphic to the symmetric algebra Sym(g). This allows commutative algebra techniques to be applied to the noncommutative U(g).
U(sl(2)) as differential operators
Realization on the polynomial ring
sl(2) acts on C[x] by differential operators: H = 2x d/dx - 1, E = x^2 d/dx - x, F = d/dx. Then U(sl(2)) embeds into the algebra of differential operators D(C[x]). The Casimir C corresponds to the Casimir equation. PBW guarantees the independence of all ordered operator products.
The associated graded object gr U(g) (via PBW filtration) is isomorphic to:
PBW implies: as a vector space, U(g) is isomorphic to Sym(g). The associated graded gr U(g) is isomorphic to Sym(g) as a commutative algebra. Noncommutativity is concentrated in lower filtration degrees.
Connections to other topics
U(g) connects Lie theory with associative algebra and physics.
- Lie algebras — Related topic
- Quantum groups — Related topic
- Representation theory — Related topic
- Commutative algebra — Related topic
Итоги
- U(g) = T(g) / <x tensor y - y tensor x - [x,y]>: associative algebra realizing the Lie bracket as a commutator
- PBW: ordered monomials in a basis of g form a basis of U(g) - proves injectivity of g -> U(g)
- Casimir C = EF + FE + H^2/2 is central in Z(U(sl(2))) and acts as n(n+2)/2 on V_n
- Hopf structure: Delta(x) = x tensor 1 + 1 tensor x defines the action on tensor products
- gr U(g) is Sym(g): PBW connects noncommutative U(g) to commutative symmetric algebra
Вопросы для размышления
- Why does the quotient by the ideal <x tensor y - y tensor x - [x,y]> realize the Lie bracket as a commutator?
- How is the Casimir element C in Z(U(sl(2))) related to the operator L^2 in quantum mechanics?
- What does the isomorphism gr U(g) isomorphic to Sym(g) give for studying representations?
Связанные уроки
- alg-24-lie-algebras — The Lie algebra g is the starting object for U(g)
- alg-26-quantum-groups — Quantum groups are q-deformations of U(g)
- alg-27-lie-repr — Representations of g extend to U(g)-modules